Reptiles of Gauteng [South Africa] Related checklists:  South Africa Bibliography of the reptiles of Gauteng Taxonomic history of the reptiles of Gauteng Introduced species

Home - Taxonomy - Geography - Biodiversity - Literature - Purchase RepFocus

Recent updates

Citation: Midtgaard, Rune. RepFocus - A Survey of the Reptiles of the World. www.repfocus.dk (Compilation date: 14th April, 2023).

Checklist General remarks: The list includes only formally described species. Newly discovered, but still unnamed species are excluded. However, unnamed species or species unassigned to species level are included, if they are the only representatives of their genus in the region. Species counts exclude extinct and introduced species. Doubtful records, typically older voucher specimens of uncertain origin, have been excluded if considered questionable, as are records based on sources considered unreliable or controversial. Note: Your comments to the checklist (omissions, errors, etc.) are welcomed, preferably if they are provided with reliable references. If possible, please attach a pdf file of the relevant reference to an email addressed to:

	Worm Lizards (Amphisbaenia)
	= endemicEX = extinct or assumed extinct Species References  Family Amphisbaenidae (Typical Worm Lizards) Genus Monopeltis (Spade-snouted Worm Lizards)   Monopeltis infuscata Dusky Spade-snouted Worm Lizard Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Branch 1998 Broadley 1997 Broadley, Gans & Visser 1976 [as capensis "Group B"] Fitzsimons 1956 [as capensis] Jacobsen 1989 [as capensis]

	Crocodilians (Crocodylia)
	= endemicEX = extinct or assumed extinct Species References  Family Crocodylidae (Crocodiles) Genus Crocodylus (Typical Crocodiles)   Crocodylus niloticus Nile Crocodile Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014

	Lizards (Sauria)
	= endemicEX = extinct or assumed extinct Species References  Family Agamidae (Agamas and Dragons) Genus Acanthocercus (Ridgeback Agamas)   Acanthocercus atricollis Black-necked Ridgeback Agama Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Genus Agama (Typical Agamas)   Agama aculeata Kalahari Spiny Agama Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Branch 1998 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Masterson, Maritz, Mackay & Alexander 2009   Agama atra Southern Rock Agama Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989  Family Chamaeleonidae (Chameleons) Genus Chamaeleo (Typical Chameleons)   Chamaeleo dilepis Flap-necked Chameleon Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989  Family Cordylidae (Girdled Lizards) Genus Chamaesaura (African Grass Lizards)   Chamaesaura aenea Coppery Grass Lizard Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Jacobsen 1989   Chamaesaura anguina Southern Highland Grass Lizard Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Jacobsen 1989 Genus Cordylus (Girdled Lizards)   Cordylus jonesii Limpopo Girdled Lizard Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley & Branch 2002 Jacobsen 1989   Cordylus vittifer Transvaal Girdled Lizard Bates & Broadley 2012 Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Branch 1998 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Masterson, Maritz, Mackay & Alexander 2009 Genus Pseudocordylus (Eastern Crag Lizards)   Pseudocordylus melanotus Common Crag Lizard Bates & Whittington-Jones 2009 Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Branch 1998 Jacobsen 1989 Genus Smaug (Dragon Girdled Lizards)   Smaug vandami Gravelotte Girdled Lizard Jacobsen 1989  Family Gekkonidae (Typical Geckos) Genus Chondrodactylus (Giant Ground Gecko and Thick-toed Geckos)   Chondrodactylus turneri Zambezi Thick-toed Gecko Heinz, Brennan, Jackman & Bauer 2021 Genus Homopholis (African Velvet Geckos)   Homopholis wahlbergii Southern African Velvet Gecko Broadley, Jackman & Bauer 2014 Genus Lygodactylus (African-Neotropical Dwarf Geckos)   Lygodactylus capensis Cape Dwarf Gecko Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Jacobsen 2012 Rebelo, Bates, Burger, Branch & Conradie 2019   Lygodactylus nigropunctatus Common Black-spotted Dwarf Gecko Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Jacobsen 1992   Lygodactylus ocellatus Common Ocellated Dwarf Gecko Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Jacobsen 1989 Genus Pachydactylus (Typical Thick-toed Geckos)   Pachydactylus affinis Transvaal Thick-toed Gecko Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Branch 1998 Jacobsen 1989   Pachydactylus capensis Common Cape Thick-toed Gecko Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Jacobsen 1989 Masterson, Maritz, Mackay & Alexander 2009  Family Gerrhosauridae (Plated Lizards) Genus Gerrhosaurus (Typical Plated Lizards)   Gerrhosaurus flavigularis Yellow-throated Plated Lizard Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Bates, Tolley, Edwards, Davids, Silva & Branch 2013 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Masterson, Koen, Du Toit & Horn 2010 Masterson, Maritz, Mackay & Alexander 2009  Family Lacertidae (Typical Lizards) Genus Ichnotropis (Rough-scaled Lizards)   Ichnotropis capensis Southern Rough-scaled Lizard Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Genus Meroles (Southwest African Desert Lizards)   Meroles squamulosus Rough-scaled Desert Lizard Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Genus Nucras (Sandveld Lizards)   Nucras holubi Southern Sandveld Lizard Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989   Nucras intertexta Spotted Sandveld Lizard Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014   Nucras lalandii Southeastern Sandveld Lizard Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Branch 1998 Jacobsen 1989 Masterson, Koen, Du Toit & Horn 2010 Masterson, Maritz, Mackay & Alexander 2009   Nucras ornata Ornate Sandveld Lizard Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Branch 1998 Broadley 1972 Jacobsen 1989 Genus Pedioplanis (African Sand Lizards)   Pedioplanis lineoocellata Spotted Sand Lizard Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989   Pedioplanis pulchella Venus Sand Lizard Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Jacobsen 1989  Family Scincidae (Skinks) Genus Acontias (Greater Legless Skinks)   Acontias gracilicauda Thin-tailed Legless Skink Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Branch 1998 Broadley & Greer 1969 Conradie, Busschau & Edwards 2018 Jacobsen 1989   Acontias occidentalis Western Black Legless Skink Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley & Greer 1969 Jacobsen 1989 Genus Mochlus (African Supple Skinks)   Mochlus sundevallii Common Savanna Supple Skink Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1966 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Genus Panaspis (African Snake-eyed Skinks)   Panaspis wahlbergii Savanna Snake-eyed Skink Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Branch 1998 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen & Broadley 2000 Jacobsen 1989 Masterson, Maritz, Mackay & Alexander 2009 Genus Trachylepis (African-American Grass and Forest Skinks)   Trachylepis capensis Cape Skink Broadley 2000 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Masterson, Koen, Du Toit & Horn 2010 Masterson, Maritz, Mackay & Alexander 2009   Trachylepis margaritifer African Rainbow Skink Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014   Trachylepis punctatissima Montane Speckled Skink Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 2000 Fitzsimons 1956 [as striata] Jacobsen 1989   Trachylepis varia Savanna Variable Skink Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Masterson, Koen, Du Toit & Horn 2010 Masterson, Maritz, Mackay & Alexander 2009  Family Varanidae (Monitor Lizards) Genus Varanus (Monitor Lizards)   Varanus albigularis White-throated Monitor Jacobsen 1989   Varanus niloticus Nile Monitor Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989

	Snakes (Serpentes)
	= endemicEX = extinct or assumed extinct Species References  Family Colubridae (Typical Snakes or Colubrids) Genus Crotaphopeltis (Herald Snakes)   Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia Common Herald Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1983 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Masterson, Maritz, Mackay & Alexander 2009 Genus Dasypeltis (African Egg Eaters)   Dasypeltis scabra Common African Egg Eater Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1983 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Masterson, Maritz, Mackay & Alexander 2009 Genus Dispholidus (Boomslangs)   Dispholidus viridis Green Boomslang Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 [as D. typus] Genus Philothamnus (African Green Snakes)   Philothamnus hoplogaster Southeastern Green Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1983 Jacobsen 1989   Philothamnus occidentalis Western Natal Green Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1983 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989   Philothamnus semivariegatus Variegated Bush Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1983 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Genus Telescopus (Afro-Asian Cat Snakes)   Telescopus semiannulatus Southern Tiger Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Branch 1998 Broadley 1983 Jacobsen 1989 Genus Thelotornis (African Vine Snakes)   Thelotornis capensis Southern Vine Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1983 Broadley 2001 Jacobsen 1989  Family Elapidae [part 1: terrestrial species] (Cobras, Mambas, etc.) Genus Aspidelaps (Shield-nosed Cobras)   Aspidelaps scutatus Shield-nosed Coral Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley & Baldwin 2006 Broadley 1983 Jacobsen 1989 Wallach, Williams & Boundy 2014 Genus Dendroaspis (Mambas)   Dendroaspis polylepis Black Mamba Maritz & Alexander 2010 Genus Elapsoidea (African Garter Snakes)   Elapsoidea sundevallii Southern African Garter Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Branch 1998 Broadley 1971 Broadley 1983 Dobiey & Vogel 2007 Jacobsen 1989 Genus Hemachatus (Ring-necked Spitting Cobra)   Hemachatus haemachates Ring-necked Spitting Cobra Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1983 Dobiey & Vogel 2007 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Masterson, Maritz, Mackay & Alexander 2009 Genus Naja (Typical Cobras)   Naja annulifera African Banded Cobra Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley & Wuster 2004 Broadley 1983 Dobiey & Vogel 2007 Fitzsimons 1956 [as N. haje] Jacobsen 1989   Naja mossambica Mozambique Spitting Cobra Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Branch 1998 Broadley 1983 Fitzsimons 1956 [as N. nigricollis] Jacobsen 1989 Wallach, Williams & Boundy 2014  Family Lamprophiidae (House Snakes, etc.) Genus Amblyodipsas (Purple-glossed Snakes and Quill-snouted Snakes)   Amblyodipsas polylepis Common Purple-glossed Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1971 Broadley 1983 Jacobsen 1989 Wallach, Williams & Boundy 2014 Genus Aparallactus (African Centipede Eaters)   Aparallactus capensis Cape Centipede Eater Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1983 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Masterson, Maritz, Mackay & Alexander 2009 Wallach, Williams & Boundy 2014 Genus Atractaspis (Stiletto Snakes)   Atractaspis bibronii Southern Stiletto Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1983 Broadley 1991 Jacobsen 1989 Masterson, Maritz, Mackay & Alexander 2009 Wallach, Williams & Boundy 2014   Atractaspis duerdeni Beaked Stiletto Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1991 Jacobsen 1989 Wallach, Williams & Boundy 2014 Genus Boaedon (Afro-Arabian House Snakes)   Boaedon capensis Brown House Snake Broadley 1983 [as fuliginosus] Fitzsimons 1956 [as lineatus] Jacobsen 1989 [as fuliginosus] Masterson, Maritz, Mackay & Alexander 2009 [as fuliginosus] Wyk & Kearney 2002 [as fuliginosus] Genus Duberria (African Slug Eaters)   Duberria lutrix Common Slug Eater Branch 1998 Broadley 1983 Jacobsen 1989 Genus Gracililima (Black File Snake)   Gracililima nyassae Black File Snake Broadley 1983 Jacobsen 1989 Genus Homoroselaps (African Harlequin Snakes)   Homoroselaps dorsalis Striped Harlequin Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1983 Dobiey & Vogel 2007 Jacobsen 1989   Homoroselaps lacteus Spotted Harlequin Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1983 Dobiey & Vogel 2007 Jacobsen 1989 Genus Lamprophis (SubSaharan House Snakes)   Lamprophis aurora Aurora House Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Branch 1998 Broadley 1983 Jacobsen 1989 Masterson, Maritz, Mackay & Alexander 2009 Genus Limaformosa (Venus File Snakes)   Limaformosa capensis Cape File Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1983 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Genus Lycodonomorphus (Southern African Water Snakes)   Lycodonomorphus inornatus Olive-brown House Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1983 Jacobsen 1989   Lycodonomorphus laevissimus Dusky-bellied Water Snake Jacobsen 1989   Lycodonomorphus rufulus Common Brown Water Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1983 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Genus Lycophidion (African Wolf Snakes)   Lycophidion capense Cape Wolf Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Branch 1976 Broadley 1983 Broadley 1996 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Laurent 1968 Masterson, Maritz, Mackay & Alexander 2009 Genus Prosymna (Shovel-snout Snakes)   Prosymna bivittata Two-striped Shovel-snout Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1980 Jacobsen 1989   Prosymna sundevallii Southern African Shovel-snout Branch 1998 Broadley & Blaylock 2013 Broadley 1980 Broadley 1983 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Genus Psammophis (Old World Sand Snakes and Grass Snakes)   Psammophis angolensis Dwarf Sand Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Jacobsen 1989   Psammophis brevirostris Short-snouted Grass Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1983 Fitzsimons 1956 [as P. sibilans] Jacobsen 1989   Psammophis crucifer Cross-marked Grass Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1983 Broadley 2002 Jacobsen 1989 Masterson, Maritz, Mackay & Alexander 2009   Psammophis jallae Zimbabwe Sand Snake Jacobsen 1989   Psammophis subtaeniatus Western Stripe-bellied Sand Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014   Psammophis trinasalis Kalahari Sand Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1983 Broadley 2002 Jacobsen 1989 Genus Psammophylax (Skaapstekers)   Psammophylax rhombeatus Spotted Skaapsteker Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1983 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Masterson, Maritz, Mackay & Alexander 2009   Psammophylax tritaeniatus Southern Striped Skaapsteker Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Branch 1998 Broadley 1983 Jacobsen 1989 Genus Pseudaspis (African Mole Snake)   Pseudaspis cana African Mole Snake Broadley 1983 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Masterson, Maritz, Mackay & Alexander 2009  Family Leptotyphlopidae (Thread Snakes) Genus Leptotyphlops (Typical Thread Snakes)   Leptotyphlops conjunctus Cape Thread Snake Broadley & Watson 1976 Broadley 1983 Jacobsen 1989   Leptotyphlops distanti Transvaal Thread Snake Broadley & Broadley 1999 Broadley & Wallach 1997 Broadley & Watson 1976 Broadley 1983 Jacobsen 1989   Leptotyphlops incognitus Incognito Thread Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley & Broadley 1999 Broadley 1983 Jacobsen 1989   Leptotyphlops scutifrons Zambezi Thread Snake Broadley & Watson 1976 Broadley 1983 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989  Family Pythonidae (Pythons) Genus Python (Typical Pythons)   Python natalensis Southern Rock Python Broadley 1983 Broadley 1984 Jacobsen 1989 Masterson, Lephuting, Mathebula & Shirinda 2012  Family Typhlopidae (Typical Blind Snakes) Genus Afrotyphlops (African Giant Blind Snakes)   Afrotyphlops bibronii Southern African Blind Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley & Wallach 2009 Broadley 1983 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Masterson, Maritz, Mackay & Alexander 2009   Afrotyphlops schlegelii Variable Giant Blind Snake Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley & Wallach 2009 Broadley 1983 Genus Rhinotyphlops (African Beaked Blind Snakes)   Rhinotyphlops lalandei Cape Blind Snake Broadley 1983 Jacobsen 1989  Family Viperidae (Vipers) Genus Bitis (African Adders)   Bitis arietans Common Puff Adder Alexander & Kruger 2010 Alexander & Maritz 2010 Branch 1998 Broadley 1983 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Masterson, Maritz, Mackay & Alexander 2009   Bitis caudalis Horned Adder Branch 1998 Broadley 1983 Jacobsen 1989 Genus Causus (Night Adders)   Causus rhombeatus Rhombic Night Adder Broadley 1983 Dobiey & Vogel 2007 Fitzsimons 1956 Jacobsen 1989 Masterson, Maritz, Mackay & Alexander 2009

	Turtles (Testudines)
	= endemicEX = extinct or assumed extinct Species References  Family Pelomedusidae (African Side-necked Turtles) Genus Pelomedusa (African Helmeted Turtles)   Pelomedusa galeata South African Helmeted Turtle Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 [as subrufa] Jacobsen 1989 [as subrufa] Petzold, Vargas-Ramirez, Kehlmaier, Vamberger, Branch, Preez, Hofmeyr, Meyer, Schleicher, Siroky & Fritz 2014 Genus Pelusios (African Mud Turtles)   Pelusios sinuatus East African Serrated Mud Turtle Jacobsen 1989  Family Testudinidae (Tortoises) Genus Kinixys (Hinge-back Tortoises)   Kinixys lobatsiana Lobatse Hinge-back Tortoise Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Broadley 1993 Ihlow, Huyssteen, Vamberger, Cory-Toussaint, Hofmeyr & Fritz 2020   Kinixys spekii Eastern Savanna Hinge-back Tortoise Bates, Branch, Bauer, Burger, Marais, Alexander & Villiers [eds.] 2014 Jacobsen 1989 Genus Stigmochelys (Leopard Tortoise)   Stigmochelys pardalis Leopard Tortoise Jacobsen 1989